Utilisation with metallic Scrap Industrial Material : Aluminium Dross

For many years, engineers and scientists have been interested in the possibility of creating hydrogen through the reaction of certain metals with water. Smith's 1972 publication proposed a technique using an amalgamated aluminium surface, building on earlier work. Gutbier and Hohne demonstrated in a 1976 US patent that hydrogen may be created by reacting magnesium-aluminum compounds with seawater. More recently, there has been increased activity, as evidenced by several publications and patents aimed at producing hydrogen through reactions involving aluminium-based metals and water. All aluminium-based systems suggest strategies for bypassing the protective layer of aluminium oxide, allowing the reaction with water to proceed. The hydrogen produced by these aluminium-water interactions could be used to power fuel cell devices for portable applications like emergency generators and laptop computers. There is also a suggestion that aluminium-water interactions could be employed to store hydrogen in fuel cell automobiles. We begin by discussing the aluminium-water reaction and the many strategies used to maintain it. The system's performance is then evaluated in comparison to the requirements for on-board vehicular hydrogen storage. Because any hydrogen-generating approach, whether for on-board storage or not, must be regenerable (i.e., the reaction products must be returned to their original form of aluminium (Al³⁺), the energy and cost requirements for these processes will be explored. 

Figure: Processing of Aluminium Dross

Dross recovery

As well as the advanced research approaches and processes that businesses use for aluminium recovery, dross is a major source of aluminium and other important elements. The techniques used to recover Al from the dross are depicted in Figure 6 (Modalavalasa & Ayyagari, 2024). Al remelting or refining generates dross as a byproduct consisting of oxides and Al particles. Previous research indicated that putting oxygen into the refining/remelting operation at 700°C might break the oxide layer generated on the surface, as depicted in the picture. The low interfacial tension between salts and Al causes the Al droplets to mix with the molten metal. The procedures for coating and decorating the interfacial layer influence the coalescing of Al droplets. Coatings on trash reduce the ability of Al drops to coalesce. A combination of NaCl and KCl alters the viscosity properties of the flux and boosts the qualities of Al coalescences. The melting process is affected by the size, shape, and impurity of the material scraps. In the tests, the salt flow comprised 70% by weight, 30 wt% of KCl, and cryolite. To boost metal recovery, more cryolite (5-15%) (Na3AlF6) is added to the salt flow. After the process, the nonmetallic content of the dross mixture increases by more than 10%, and the viscosity of the salt increases rapidly. It emits methane gas due to the combination of its organic component and Al carbide. The top-blown rotary converter and inductively coupled plasma with mass spectrometry were used to investigate dross processing and the fraction of rare earth metals in the dross. The Al metallic yield is 81.6%. This yields 6% more metal than ingots do. The great majority of rare earth elements (RRE) were carried straight from dross to salt slag.

The salt composition of black dross determines the sort of dross produced using this approach. The chemical composition of black dross studied using EDX analysis offers quantitative data on the elemental composition of aluminium black dross, i.e., Aluminium detected 15.65%, Mg 1.90%, Fe 0.76%, Cl 0.75%, 0.73 Ca, K 0.15%, and 0.22 C present in black dross(Sathiyaseelan et al., 2025). Following that, we need to extract more aluminium to produce more hydrogen gas. 

The reaction can be represented as:

Al³⁺ + 3OH⁻ → Al(OH)₃ (s)

Upon the addition of excess 20% NaOH solution, the aluminium hydroxide redissolves to form a soluble complex known as sodium aluminate (NaAlO₂), with the solution attaining a mildly alkaline pH of around 10.8:

Al(OH)₃ + OH⁻ → [Al(OH)₄]⁻ → NaAlO₂ + H₂O (simplified)

This transformation highlights the amphoteric nature of aluminium hydroxide — it behaves as a base in acidic media and as an acid in basic media.

To avoid the production of coloured or contaminated precipitates, it is necessary to utilise high-purity AlCl3 and NaOH. Filter or pre-treat the AlCl3 solution to eliminate suspended particles or heavy metals that were previously suspected. To ensure homogeneous precipitation, add NaOH gently while stirring continuously. Keep an eye on the pH; the production of Al(OH)3 normally starts between pH 6 and 8, and dissolution begins after pH 9. Higher temperatures may cause colloidal instability or rapid dissolution. After adding excess NaOH, check the pH and appearance of the solution to ensure complete breakdown into sodium aluminate. Impurities from this type of dross are difficult to remove, and the sample must be further characterised using NMR and FTIR. 

Utility on PEM-based Fuel Cells conversion into Energy

Green hydrogen produced via electrochemical splitting of water, powered by variable renewable energy, is gaining recognition as a key component of society's transition to low-carbon energy, particularly for the decarbonization of hard-to-abate industrial sectors such as steel, refining, and chemicals. As an energy carrier, green hydrogen can be flexibly converted and stored, enabling the long-term storage of large amounts of renewable energy, which is crucial for facilitating rapid, large-scale renewable energy development. The global total hydrogen indicates a need for 140-170 MtH₂eq by 2030 and 430-600 MtH₂eq by 2050 (Wang et al., 2025).  Proton exchange membranes (PEMs) are essential components of both proton exchange membrane fuel cells and proton exchange membrane water electrolysers, two key technologies critical to the sustainable energy infrastructure of the future. It converts the chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen into electrical energy, providing a zero-emission alternative to conventional combustion engines. Meanwhile, PEMWEs enable the storage of renewable electricity in the form of hydrogen fuel through the electrolysis of water. In both applications, the PEM functions as a selective ion-conducting electrolyte, allowing proton transport while preventing reactant mixing, which is crucial for efficiency and safety.

To prepare, membrane thickness directly affects proton conductivity, gas cross-over and mechanical stability, making it one of the most important design parameters for PEM fuel cells. In the figure, experiments demonstrate that thinner membranes enhance the structure design and improve their properties during the conversion of energy cells. A molecular level of understanding of PEM functionality further underscores the importance of membrane thickness. It consists of hydrophobic domains that absorb water, creating pathways for efficient proton conduction. Hydrogen energy is widely utilised in this application, ranging from hydrogen cars and drones to naval submarines and marine unmanned systems, showcasing its versatility and emphasising the importance of optimising PEMs to meet diverse application needs. If a thicker membrane structure is good in the diffusion layer and enhances mechanical robustness, it incurs higher voltage losses and reduced efficiency. In this study, fabricated Simple PEM-based fuel cells for hydrogen to electricity with varying thickness, compared their performance, and analysed their electrochemical behaviour using EIS (Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy) to evaluate the effect of membrane thickness on device performance. Our results reveal that performance was the primary focus of our analysis. Durability testing results were not included, as it is widely recognised that thicker membranes generally provide better durability.

 

Figure: Preparation of PEM (Photon Exchange Membrane)-Based Fuel Cell for Energy Conversion

Material	Function
PEEK powder	Base polymer for the membrane
DMF (Dimethylformamide)	Solvent for dissolving PEEK
Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) or Chlorosulfonic acid (ClSO₃H)	Sulfonating agents
Deionized water	Washing and protonation
Glass plate	Casting surface for the membrane
Vacuum oven	For drying membranes

Procedure for the preparation of PEM for fuel cells

Prepare a solution for the dissolution of PEEK in DMF. Dissolve PEEK in DMF at a ratio of about 10–20 wt%. Stir the mixture at 80–120°C for several hours (typically 6–12 hours) under reflux until a homogeneous solution is obtained. Pour the viscous PEEK/DMF solution onto a clean glass plate or Petri dish to cast the membrane. Use a doctor blade or film applicator to ensure even thickness (100–200 µm typical). Dry at room temperature overnight, then in a vacuum oven at 80°C to remove residual DMF. Sulfonation of PEEK (to make it proton-conductive). Immerse the dried PEEK film in chlorosulfonic acid (ClSO₃H) or concentrated sulfuric acid at room temperature or 50–60°C for 12–24 hours. This introduces –SO₃H groups, making it a SPEEK (sulfonated PEEK) membrane.

PEEK+SO₃→SPEEK

Washing and Protonation Wash the sulfonated membrane thoroughly with deionised water to remove acid. Optionally, treat with 0.5 M H₂SO₄ and then wash again with DI water. Store in DI water to keep hydrated. 

Design of the fuel cells